[7th Plenary Committee Meeting] “Conference on Future Research Plan” (July 14, 2012)

Date: Jul. 14, 2012
Venue: Inamori Foundation Memorial Bldg. (Inamori Center), Middle-sized Meeting Room (Room No. 332), Kyoto University

Memorandum

For this general meeting, facilitators and assistant managers of each unit and cluster gathered and discussed the following topics regarding the future research plan:

  1. Possible methods to disperse the main project’s results internationally and domestically.
    • 5th European Conference on African Studies: African dynamics in a multi-polar world (June 2013, Lisbon, Portugal: Panel Proposal Deadline on Oct. 19, 2012)
    • 55th Annual Meeting of African Studies Association: Research Frontiers in the Study of Africa (November 2012, Philadelphia, USA: Panel Proposal Deadline on March 2013)
    • Canadian Association of African Studies Annual Conference 2013 (May 2013)
    • Regional Conference of International Geographical Union 2013: Traditional Wisdom and Modern Knowledge for the Earth’s Future (August 2013: Joint session with related academic society [20 min presentation x 4]. Panel proposal deadline on the end of Aug. 2012)
    • Annual meeting of American Anthropological Association (November 2013)
    • Inter-Congress of International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences (May, 2014)
    • Annual Conference of Japan Association for African Studies (May 2013 at University of Tokyo)
  2. The possibility of utilizing academic journals and special reports to announce project results.
  3. Where and when to hold the international symposium in Japan scheduled for FY 2013.
  4. Possible locations for the “Africa Forum’’ in FY 2013.
  5. The best method of accumulating data in the ‘’Data Archive.’’

[6th Plenary Committee Meeting] “From Large scale conflicts to small scale ‘everyday’ conflicts: Introduction of Residents Participation and Changes in Natural Conservation Strategy” (May 12, 2012)

Date: May 12, 2012
Venue: Inamori Foundation Memorial Bldg. (Inamori Center), Middle-sized Meeting Room (Room No. 332), Kyoto University

Program

10:00～10:15　Business Meeting
10:15～10:30　Gen Yamakoshi (Kyoto University)
The aim of the meeting
10:30～11:30　Nobuyuki Sekino (Kyoto University)
The Conflict Amplifying Residents Participatory Resource Management: a case from Senegal
11:30～12:30　Ayumi Onumu (Keio University)
Profit Distribution and Its Patterns in the Context of Natural Resource Conservation Incentive
12:30～13:15　Break
13:15～14:15　Keiichi Omura (Osaka Universy)
Toward ‘Nature = Social Diversity’: Choice of Inuit who defies the global network
14:15～14:45　General Discussion

Report

Gen Yamakoshi (Kyoto University): Introduction

First, an introduction was given on the following topics: recent trends in environmental protection in Africa, diversification of state-driven conservation policy, and implementation of economic principles. Then, the importance of investigating the political nature and power in natural resource conservation in Africa and the impact on the local residents and their coping strategy followed were reported. Also it was reported that the recent study has a characteristic of analyzing environmental policy together with micro approach of analyzing local residents’ strategy.

Nobuyuki Sekino (Kyoto University)
The Conflict Amplifying Residents Participatory Resource Management: a case from Senegal

After an introduction of the history of Senegal’s fishing industry and the establishment of marine sanctuaries, objectives of joint management of B Community Marine Sanctuary by the government and regional community cooperatives, and achieving both biodiversity conservation and regional development were explained. The presenter reported there are several problems. There is friction of opinion over the way of non-fishing area establishment in the marine sanctuary. The eco-lodges, which were built in the marine sanctuary, do not lead to the employment of the local residents. There are also dishonest administration, rampant conflict regarding profit distribution, project’s financial viability and financial opacity of the management committee. Environmental NGOs participate heavily in politics (e.g., electing local assembly members) and are expanding afforestation projects through the collaboration with the mass media and industry. The mangrove afforestation projects, which attempted to cope with climate change, seemed succeeded by planting 36.7 million trees since 2009 by funds from a French enterprise. The project itself is, in fact, considered to be a failure. As a result, the NGOs have split apart and are now competing with one another. The observed increase in population of the thiof (a subspecies of grouper that is representative of the mangrove biosphere) because of the establishment of the marine sanctuary can also be interpreted as a success; however, there are also mixed opinions. By running the project with friends, people becoming suspicious for nepotism and unfair bias. Due to the establishment of cooperative marine sanctuary zones, global and national relationships have given rise to and amplifying local conflicts. The attitude of finding the solution through repeating trial and error at the site is now required.

Ayumi Onumu (Keio University)
Profit Distribution and Its Patterns in the Context of Natural Resource Conservation Incentive

It is important for the local constituency to become the main driving force in community based management. CBM can be divided into four main categories on the basis of usage of the market (commercial and non-commercial) and presence of extraction (extracting and non-extracting). In terms of strength of benefits, commercial > non-commercial, and extracting > non-extracting. Therefore, the monetary incentive is high and can be created through strategic delivery of supply. However, the unpredictable nature of the market leads to severe fluctuations in demand, which consequently impacts the stability of benefit. If the cost of monitoring is less and the reward is also small in the condition of fixed reward, then the conservation project likely to fail. However, when the increase in revenue outweighs the monitoring cost, the locals’ participation level may increases. In the case of the income from CAMPFIRE safari hunting in Zimbabwe, the majority of revenue came from hunting, with 60% coming from elephants. The locals allocated funds for the maintenance of lifestyle infrastructure by returning 50% of the revenue to the region. The quality of community governance is crucial for CBM success. Ethics and morals become a part of the redistribution of cash income, making the issue rather complicated. It was shown that when payment is correlated with contribution, production output is maximized.

Keiichi Omura (Osaka University)
Toward ‘Nature = Social Diversity’: Choice of Inuit who defies the global network

Omura first looked back on the history of aboriginal movement among the Inuit people in the Arctic tundra. Achieving internal results in a modern state through active participation in aboriginal movements may possibly lead to the promotion of assimilation of aboriginal people to the mainstream society (i.e. ‘’white society’’). However, while the Inuit people have partially become integrated into the global network, they have not been completely assimilated and have succeeded in keeping their Inuit identity intact. This is because, through the process of this movement, they have managed to preserve the “Inuit lifestyle” which differs from the global standard through an occupational system based on the interaction of humans and animals, along with a diversity of nature—culture that is based on humans and non-humans alike. Finally, as a suggestion for the ideal Inuit form of governance, Omura puts forward the structural framework of democracy extended to objects; in other words, the establishment of a “mono-Congress” in addition to “modern democracy.”
(Shuichi Oyama, Toru Sagawa)

[11th Public Workshop / 8th Meeting of Culture and Society Research Unit] “Human Rights NGOs and Strategies of Public Justice in Sub-Saharan Africa” (February 2, 2013)

Date：Feb.2, 2013 15:00-17:00
Venue: Inamori Foundation Memorial Bldg.

Program

15:00-17:00 Ronald Niezen (Department of Anthropology, McGill University)
“Human Rights NGOs and Strategies of Public Justice in Sub-Saharan Africa”

Abstract

The most significant influence on states that moves them in the direction of human rights compliance involves campaigns of public exposure and protest intended to apply reputational costs to violators of rights. The effectiveness and social consequences of these “politics of shame” vary considerably according to the nature of NGO networks and public participation in justice lobbying. This can be understood by comparison between the claims and strategies of the Tuareg in West Africa and those of the Umoja Women’s village among the Samburu of Kenya. The extension of the international movement of indigenous peoples into sub-Saharan Africa presents an opportunity to consider emerging processes of rights compliance, influenced by trans-national public engagement with distant public audiences.

[2nd Public Lecture / 9th Plenary Committee Meeting] “Utilizing African Potentials for Conflict Resolution” (January 26, 2013)

Date: January 26, 2013
Venue: Inamori Foundation Memorial Bldg. (Inamori Center), Large Conference Room, Kyoto University

Program

15:00～15:15　Itaru Ohta (Kyoto University)
Aims of the Workshop
15:15～16:15　Jin Matsumoto (Journalist, Adviser to Asahi Simbun)
Does Africa Have Conflict Resolving Ability?
16:15～16:35　Break
16:35～17:35　Yntiso D. Gebre (Addis Ababa University)
Legal Pluralism and Customary Courts in Ethiopia
17:35～18:00　General Discussion

Abstract

Itaru Ohta (Kyoto University)
The Aims of the Workshop

Contemporary African Societies face the task of how to prevent conflict and violence, how to reconstruct and rejuvenate the social order destroyed and exhausted by conflicts and how citizens can reconcile after the conflict. In this conference, we discuss how the knowledge or institution, which people in Africa created, accumulated, and practiced, can be applied to those pragmatic issues.

Jin Matsumoto (Journalist, Adviser to Asahi Simbun)
Does Africa Have Conflict Resolving Ability?

□ The answer is “Yes, she does.”
□ E.g. Somaliland (population of 2.8million)

  • The civil war broke out in the middle of 1980s. Barre regime collapsed in 1991.
  • Armed conflicts with in Somaliland continued. There were about 20 clans and 50 thousands AK-47 .
  • Clan leaders in Borama called a peace conference.
  • 82 elders called out to give up guns. Militias were absorbed into police and army.
  • UNDP took charge of disarmament.
  • Almost all guns held by citizens were withdrawn by year 2002.
  • Markets full of female. Reliable public peace.
  • Though, Somaliland is “mono-ethnic country”: citizens shares common interests.

□ Multiethnic countries are put in much serious situations: Republic Democratic of Cong, Northern Uganda, Chad, Zimbabwe

  • Economic collapse – food shortage – dependence on one’s own ethnicity – ethnic conflicts prevail.
  • Patrons receive bribe to support clients – to the clash of national economy.

□ Is it possible to resolve conflict in multiethnic society? – “Yes, if they find other values other than depending on ethnicity”

  • No prominent ethnic conflicts in the era of independence wars in Africa.
  • A society that people can live without depending on ethnicity. A society that people can live by working hard will replace ethnicity-prevailing societies.

□ Do not expect governments because they are always “benefit inducing”

  • Needs of incentive based on “when you work you can eat,” “when you work hard, there are more fortune.”
  • Much incentive in ORAP in Zimbabwe.
  • South Africa’s investment in Mozambique and Tanzania. Improvement in employment rates and labor quality.
  • My experiment. Introducing economic rationality by private bodies. OSR.

□ Difficult but worth trying.

Yntiso D. Gebre (Addis Ababa University)
Legal Pluralism and Customary Courts in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, plural legal systems exist: the formal (regular) court and the informal (customary) court. With the exception of family matters that may be handled outside of the regular court and disputes between Muslims that may be taken to the Sharia court, conflicts resolved through other traditional mechanisms lack legal recognition. However, research reveals that most people in rural communities and many people in urban areas prefer the customary courts over the formal law for all forms of disputes.

In the past, the customary dispute resolutions mechanisms were considered backward practices that need to be replaced by the modern codified law. Today, there exists a growing recognition of the relevance of traditional conflict resolutions. In recent years, it became evident that sometimes government authorities encourage customary courts to address conflicts that could not be resolved through the state machinery.

Customary dispute resolution institutions are not without blemishes, however. Some are criticized for violating human rights and for excluding women and the youth from participation in hearings. This places traditional courts at odds with the international instruments that Ethiopia has signed. There are also instances, in some localities, where customary courts handle hard crimes such as homicide and even pass death sentences at the village court level. This is another source of confrontation between the formal and informal systems.

In this presentation, I will explain the reasons why the traditional courts remain relevant and in some cases even dominant; the manifestations of the recent seemingly favorable trend and its implications; and the challenges associated with the use of customary courts.

[4th Meeting of Research Cluster on Southern Africa / 10th Public Workshop] “Creativity of the African Farmers: Living strategy of Angolan immigrants living in Western Province, Zambia” Rumiko Murao (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) (January 24, 2013)

Date: January 24, 2013. 15:00-17:00
Venue: Large-sized seminar room, 3F Inamori Center, Kawabata Campus, Kyoto University

Program

Title: Creativity of the African Farmers: Living strategy of Angolan immigrants living in Western Province, Zambia
Presenter: Rumiko Murao (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies)

Abstract

Angolan immigrants in farm village of Western Province, Zambia are voluntary refugees who have left their country because of a civil war. After their immigrations from Angola, their lives, especially land uses, are regulated in the context of political and economic change at national and global level. In this presentation, I examine characteristics to be seen in the African farmers under the political and economic change by focusing on creativities that can be seen in the living strategies of the Angolan immigrants.

[10th Public Workshop / 4th Meeting of Research Cluster on Southern Africa] “Creativity of the African Farmers: Living strategy of Angolan immigrants living in Western Province, Zambia” Rumiko Murao (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) (January 24, 2013)

Date: January 24, 2013. 15:00-17:00
Venue: Large-sized seminar room, 3F Inamori Center, Kawabata Campus, Kyoto University

Program

Title: Creativity of the African Farmers: Living strategy of Angolan immigrants living in Western Province, Zambia
Presenter: Rumiko Murao (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies)

Abstract

Angolan immigrants in farm village of Western Province, Zambia are voluntary refugees who have left their country because of a civil war. After their immigrations from Angola, their lives, especially land uses, are regulated in the context of political and economic change at national and global level. In this presentation, I examine characteristics to be seen in the African farmers under the political and economic change by focusing on creativities that can be seen in the living strategies of the Angolan immigrants.

[2nd African Forum: Harare] “Conflict Resolution and Coexistence through Reassessment and Utilization of “African Potentials” “(December 7 – 9, 2012)

Date: December 7 – 9, 2012
Venue: Bronte, The Garden Hotel, Harare

Outline

We have held an annual series of open discussions, titled the “African Conflict and Coexistence Forum,” in African locations to promote the international exchange of insights among and with the African scholars and professionals. In December 2011, the first year into our project, the forum was held in Nairobi. In December 2012, the second forum was held in Harare.

At the Harare Forum focusing on Southern Africa, there were 8 presentations, including the keynote speech, made by African researchers as well as 7 by Japanese researchers. There were also 3 African and 4 Japanese participants from the first Nairobi Forum, which had focused on East Africa, and much lively and varied discussions were exchanged as to what constituted the African Potentials to be utilized in conflict resolution and coexistence realization.

Building upon what had been achieved in the Nairobi Forum, the participants in the Harare Forum brought with them short essays of 2000~3000 words in response to following 5 questions we had posed to them beforehand, which were full of personal insights from research in the field. This method was designed to facilitate even more focused discussions on site.

  1. What are African Potentials that can be utilized for conflict resolution, reconciliation and social healing? (The concept of African Potentials could be ambiguous, multifaceted and problematic, and include conservative/liberal/radical ideologies. It might raise a more fundamental question about who Africans are in the Southern African context.)
  2. How can the African Potentials work in a conflict resolution process?
  3. How can African Potentials be articulated with global/universal systems of justice and conflict resolution?
  4. African Potentials may include “harmful” ones. How can a pro-African Potentials orientation satisfy both at once local and universal justice while protecting human rights in addressing such “harmful traditional practices”?
  5. What are unique conflict patterns, if any, in the Southern African context that differ from those in other African regions?

The Harare Forum went as follows:
The project leader, Itaru Ohta opened the forum with an overview of the project. Next, Dr. Intiso Gebre of Addis Ababa University gave a critique of the Nairobi Forum as well as the project itself as a whole. This was followed by the keynote speech by Dr. Sam Moyo, former chairman of CODESRIA and leading scholar on world land reform. Professor Moyo provided a brief review of the contemporary agricultural history of the African Continent to point out its multifacetedness as well as several common themes, then highlighted the characteristics of conflict in Southern Africa, setting the course of discussion for the entire forum.

 

A total of 14 presentations were organized into 5 sessions. The topics ranged from land reform, autochthony, power sharing, regional cooperation, reconciliation and social healing, everyday conflict settlement, to spirituality and even other themes. Poignant episodes and insights were exchanged on the utilization of the African Potential for conflict resolution and realization of coexistence, as well as the characteristics of phenomena pertaining specifically to Southern Africa.

The following are the debating points culled from the presentations and discussions at the Harare Forum. These were made clear to all participants at the final general discussion for referencing their opinions. The participants agreed at the end for the presentations to be published after revision as the culmination of the forum.

Agenda for General Discussion

1. What are the (unique) conflict patterns and the issues to be addressed in Southern Africa?

  • Settler colonialism, racism and capitalist penetration (background of neoliberal globalization).
  • Centrality of the violent history of the land dispossession of the indigenous people.
  • Autochthony; Migration and historical layers; Precarious positions of minorities.
  • Indigenization and political/economic nationalism against neoliberal reform.
  • Polarized views on “good governance” and “traditional values”: hybrid institution?
  • External contexts: security system and scramble for resources.

2. What are “African Potentials” operating in conflict resolution and coexistence?

  • Negotiated consensus; Are players fixed entities with fixed identities?
  • Ownership of history, and the respect for the ancestry; Whose history?
  • Relational views on humans (and the nature); and openness?
  • Community-based, from within; Culturalist vs. political economy approaches?
  • Always constructed and invented; Only imaginary?

3. Where can “African Potentials” be utilized for conflict resolution and coexistence?

  • Process-oriented, and relating to the past, at multiple loci (at different levels: village/locality/nation/continent/global solidarity):
    • Land reform
    • Ecology and resource management.
    • Projection of (national) identity, dealing with past injustice.
    • Power-sharing, regional mediation, and post-conflict reconciliation.
    • Other critical milieus: class relations, gender and patriarchy…
  • When (how it takes) to judge success; measurement?

4. What kinds of articulation between local practices and formal mechanisms (state structure, regional organizations, etc.) can be envisioned?

  • Roles of chiefs. Should be institutionalized? To what extent, in what way?
  • How about the agency of ordinary people? How voices are heard?
  • State intervention; “Uncaptured” peasantry?
  • SADC as a community? Regional conflict/security regime (protection).
  • (Universal) rights and (local) traditions; Harm/utility of each (or of their combination)?

5. Some resonance between “African Potentials” and “Asian potentials”?

Program

December 7 (Fri.)
19:00 – 20:00 Registration
20:00 – 22:00 Reception (Restaurant Emannuels)
December 8 (Sat.)
9:15 – 9:30 Itaru Ohta (Kyoto University)
Introduction: Purpose of the Harare Forum
9:30 – 9:45 Gebre Yntiso (Addis Ababa University)
Comments on the Nairobi Forum held in 2011
9:45 – 10:15 Keynote Speech:Sam Moyo (African Institute for Agrarian Studies)
African Potentials: Southern Africa’s Conflict Regime
10:15 – 10:35 Break
 

◎Session 1: Dynamics of Conflict Resolution in Zimbabwe

(1) 10:35 – 11:05 Donald Chimanikire (University of Zimbabwe)
Zimbabwe’s discourse of national reconciliation and conflict resolution: The cases of Reconciliation, The Unity Accord, The Global Political Agreement (GPA) and National Healing
(2) 11:05 – 11:35 Grasian H. Mkodzongi (University of Edinburgh)
Land reform, land conflicts and the dynamics of authority after land reform in Zimbabwe 2000–2011
(3) 11:35 – 12:05 Kazuhito Suga (I-i-net, Japan)
Effect of African potentials on conflicts after Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe –
12:05 – 12:15 Comments on the Session 1
Gebre Yntiso (Addis Ababa University)
12:15 – 14:00 Lunch
 

◎Session 2: Power-Sharing, Mediation and Reconciliation in Southern Africa

(4) 14:00 – 14:30 Yoich Mine (Doshisha University)
Sharing and dispersing power in the African perspectives: A research note on African Potentials
(5) 14:30 – 15:00 Yoko Nagahara (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies)
History as an African Potential: ¬Conflict and Reconciliation in Relation to Namibia’s Colonial Past
(6) 15:00 – 15:30 Mitsugi Endo (University of Tokyo)
African Potentials in the context of Southern Africa
15:30 – 15:40 Comments on the Session 2
Edward Kirumira (Makerere University)
15:40 – 16:00 Break
 

◎Session 3: Peopling and Conflict Resolution in South Africa

(7) 16:00 – 16:30 Rumi Umino (Tokyo Metropolitan University)
Living with conflicts: Being “indigenous” in South Africa, and beyond
(8) 16:30 – 17:00 Lungisile Ntsebeza (University of Cape Town)
Resolving conflict and ensuring peaceful co-existence in South Africa: Any role for land?
(9) 17:00 – 17:30 Toshihiro Abe (Otani University)
Lawyer Mandela’s court tactics and the potential function of the South African TRC
17:30 – 17:40 Comments on the Session 3
Eisei Kurimoto (Osaka University)
December 9 (Sun.)

◎Session 4: Land and Conflict in Zambia

(10) 9:15 – 9:45 Richard Zulu & Chileshe L. Mulenga (University of Zambia)
Conflict resolution: Lessons from Zamba
(11) 9:45 – 10:15 Shuichi Oyama (Kyoto University)
The People’s anger killed a chief and his spirit protects the territory: Inequality and local resolution of land allocation under the new 1995 Land Act in Zambia
10:15 – 10:25 Comments on the Session 4
Kennedy Mkutu (United States International University)
10:25 – 10:45 Break
 

◎Session 5: African Potentials in Perspectives

(12) 10:45 – 11: 15 Wilbert Sadomba (University of Zimbabwe)
Potential of African philosophy in conflict resolution and peace-building
(13) 11:15 – 11:45 Euclides Gonçalves (Centro de Estudos Sociais Aquino de Bragança)
The politics of persuasion: The influentes and the conflict resolution in Mozambique
(14) 11:45 – 12:15 Michael Neocosmos (University of South Africa)
Thinking the Resolution-of-Contradictions-Among-the-People in Africa and the politics of social healing (some theoretical notes)
12:15 – 12:25 Comments on the Session 5
Motoji Matsuda (Kyoto University)
12:25 – 14:00 Lunch
 
14:00 – 16:00 General Discussion (Chair: Yoich Mine)
 

[9th Public Workshop] “Taxing Times: Informal Economies and Religious Conflict in Northern Nigeria” (Co- organized by the 9th Kyoto University African Studies Seminar (KUASS)) (November 16, 2012)

Date: November 16, 2012. 15:00-17:00
Venue: Middle-sized seminar room, 3F Inamori Center, Kyoto University

Program

“Taxing Times: Informal Economies and Religious Conflict in Northern Nigeria”
Dr. Kate Meagher (London School of Economics)

Abstract

This lecture is based on research carried out in northern Nigeria in late 2011, just before the acceleration of terrorist bombing. It examines the role of informal economic activities, which in Nigeria tend to be based on ethnic and religious forms of organization, in exacerbating or mitigating religious conflict. The lecture focuses on three categories of informal activities, characterized by economic interdependence, competition and value conflicts between Christian and Muslim enterprise groups. It examines how the nature of informal economic relations influences inter-religious relations between each of these three categories of enterprises, and considers how government policy contributes to strengthening or undermining positive tendencies, or exacerbating negative processes. In the process, the lecture reveals the underlying basis of religious tension in northern Nigeria, and the social resources available to address it.

[5th Meeting of Research Unit on Livelihood and Environment / 8th Public Workshop] “The formation of the Tanzanian awareness” Toshimichi Nemoto (Japan Tanzania Tours Ltd.) (November 15, 2012)

Date: November 15, 2012. 15:00-17:00
Venue: Room 318, 3F Inamori Center, Kawabata Campus, Kyoto University

Program

Title: The formation of the Tanzanian awareness
Presenter: Toshimichi Nemoto (Japan Tanzania Tours Ltd.)

Abstract

The borderline in African Continent, where is multiracial, was designated based on Berlin Conference of 1885. While each colony tried to become independent aiming at the formation of one-nation-state, many of them repeatedly experienced ethnic conflicts. However, Tanzania has not experienced major ethnic conflicts or a civil war since its independence 50 years ago. This presentation looks back the recent contemporary history of Tanzania since the mid-19th century.

[8th Public Workshop / 5th Meeting of Research Unit on Livelihood and Environment] “The formation of the Tanzanian awareness” Toshimichi Nemoto (Japan Tanzania Tours Ltd.) (November 15, 2012)

Date: November 15, 2012. 15:00-17:00
Venue: Room 318, 3F Inamori Center, Kawabata Campus, Kyoto University

Program

Title: The formation of the Tanzanian awareness
Presenter: Toshimichi Nemoto (Japan Tanzania Tours Ltd.)

Abstract

The borderline in African Continent, where is multiracial, was designated based on Berlin Conference of 1885. While each colony tried to become independent aiming at the formation of one-nation-state, many of them repeatedly experienced ethnic conflicts. However, Tanzania has not experienced major ethnic conflicts or a civil war since its independence 50 years ago. This presentation looks back the recent contemporary history of Tanzania since the mid-19th century.